Category: today i learned (til)

Every year in March, Georgia Tech hosts Science and Engineering Day in association with the Atlanta Science Festival on campus to provide hands-on science-related activities for all ages in the metro Atlanta area. The entire day is packed with events placed all around campus, where different campus clubs and organizations provide activities in different clusters of science. This year, our StemCommVIP hosted an event called STEM AFTER DARK, where we had various space-themed activities set in and around the Kendeda building for people to engage in. For the event, my team and I wanted to create an event where we would be able to have an interactive event where everyone could create something. In our pre-planning stages, we wanted to have an activity that was interactive and innovative enough so that participants could get a keepsake from the event. After much discussion and planning out the materials that we needed, my team settled on a shrink-dinks activity station, where participants could sketch and draw onto a thin piece of plastic paper that would later be heated up and shrink down to smaller pieces of thicker plastic. For our event, participants could create planet- and space-themed keychains and pins from either the templates we provided or from their own imagination. 

I remember being so fascinated with this activity because it was really cool to see the process of the plastic shrinking in size. The Shrink Dinks are essentially just sheets of polystyrene plastic. Polystyrene plastics are just chains of repeating units of styrene molecules and when the plastic is heated up, the molecules begin to vibrate more vigorously, causing the chains to loosen up and move apart from each other. As the plastic is heated up further, it first shrinks down and then it reaches a temperature when the material becomes soft and pliable so that the plastic can be molded and shaped. To return the plastic back to its same rigid consistency, decrease the temperature, and let the heat die down, the chains settle back into their hard ridged shape as the chains have less energy to release.  This expanding and shrinking process can be seen in thermal expansions. As the plastic heats up the molecules move apart as well, expand slightly, and then shrink again due to the loss of heat. 

Our activity at the event was a huge success, there were constantly people going in and coming out and being extremely excited to get a key chain. At the events, my team had posters explaining the thermodynamic process that the keychains went through and everyone got to see their keychains shrink when it came to their turn. There were so many people have made so many space-themed keychains, and so many people went beyond that and made them cute and personalized ones as well. It was a great event to be a part of and my team was great in making the event a success.

References:

Beese, J., & Helfer, C. (2014). Polymer family night: The science behind the fun. Science Scope, 37(8), 37.

Space shrinky dinks. The Discovery. (2019, October 2). https://nvdm.org/event/space-shrinky-dinks-2019-10-09/

University, C. M. (n.d.). Shrinky dinks – gelfand center – carnegie Mellon University. Shrinky Dinks – Gelfand Center – Carnegie Mellon University. https://www.cmu.edu/gelfand/lgc-educational-media/polymers/molecular-rearrangement/shrinky-dinks.html

College classrooms often bear the reputation of being dull and uninspiring. Most of the time, classrooms are just rows and rows of tables, black or gray chairs used for seats, and mono-colored walls. These types of classroom environments contribute to a sense of monotony which doesn’t foster an optimal learning environment. The lack of visual stimulation can lead for students to disengage and reduce attention spans to their professors and further lead to low test averages and low academic performance in class. As classrooms are a vital part of our learning environment and the way that students engage in lectures, the classroom environment that we are in should be more engaging and vibrant and create a more stimulating atmosphere. 

When it comes to learning, there are various factors that influence how we absorb and retain information. One factor that influences our learning experience and is often overlooked is the impact of colors. Colors impact the way that information is processed in our brain, so when placed in an environment that is not monotonous, the brain reacts to the colors that are in the room. For example, warmer and more vibrant colors, such as red and yellow are known to be stimulating to the brain.  When we see the color red, our bodies react naturally releasing adrenaline in the brain. The adrenaline increases our blood pressure and heart rate as well, this heightened state can lead to enhanced focus and attention. It can increase quick responses to reactions and physical performances in classes. Due to the adrenaline, it creates a more collaborative space as well, as students are able to communicate and discuss more freely about the content at hand. Vibrant classroom colors such as red and yellow are attention grabbers as well, so when placed in an environment that is not so visually stimulating, it is easier for students to understand the material as it is being taught in front of them. 

The other end of the color spectrum is colors that have cooler tones creating a calming and soothing effect for the mind. These colors reduce stress and anxiety within students creating a safe space for them to learn. Cooler hues such as blue and green are known to be psychologically and physiologically influencing. When seeing shades of blue and green, it creates a sense of tranquility and stability with the mind. This sense of calmness helps students memorize and understand material more than in a white-and-gray classroom environment. Physiologically, cooler colors reduce cortisol levels and increase the production of serotonin which calms the mind down even further and creates a sense of security. Cooler colors should be placed in classrooms where students need to have a lot of focus and concentration. Study halls, testing centers, and tutoring areas are also places where students benefit from having cooler tones of colors in their classroom walls and decorations. 

Straying away from the monotonous walls and classroom decorations helps students excel better in the natural learning environment. Having different shades of colors for classroom walls unexpectedly serves as an intrinsic motivator to students. Brighter and more visually appealing colors stimulate classroom environments and change students’ attitude and make them more motivated to learn. These colors promote a sense of enthusiasm that further builds collaboration between students. Cooler colors create a sense of stability and calmness in the student’s mind. Blue and green incorporated into the classroom settings, helps students understand course material faster and in a calm and effective manner. 

By effectively using the power of colors, it can lead to better learning outcomes in the classroom and a better understanding of harder and more challenging materials. Colors and hues play a pivotal role in enhancing cognitive processes in learning environments. They shape students’ educational experiences to be better and provide them with an extra push that enables them to be better in their classes. Whenever there is a classroom that needs renovating or a school being built, educators, teachers, and students alike should pay a little more attention to the colors of their classrooms. The slight change in detail can foster a whole different learning environment that is beneficial to all. 

References:

AL‐Ayash, A., Kane, R. T., Smith, D., & Green‐Armytage, P. (2016). The influence of color on student emotion, heart rate, and performance in learning environments. Color Research & Application, 41(2), 196-205.

Mehta, R., & Zhu, R. (2009). Blue or red? Exploring the effect of color on cognitive task performances. Science, 323(5918), 1226-1229.

Ray, B. (2022, August 1). Best colors for classroom and the psychology behind it. A Tutor. https://atutor.ca/best-colors-for-classroom/ 

Yildirim, K., Cagatay, K., & Ayalp, N. (2015). Effect of wall color on the perception of classrooms. Indoor and Built Environment, 24(5), 607-616.

As the semester ends, and finals week begins, the amount of anxiety and stress that suddenly seems to double down on everyone on campus begins as well. The buzz of campus life that was there before, dies down to frowns and frustrations, as everyone starts preparing for exam season and struggles over not understanding the materials at hand. It seems that in the time that we are the most stressed and overworked, we will do just about anything to procrastinate the task at hand. Whether that be studying, working on a final paper, or completing a group project, all of our thoughts wander on the various ways that we can procrastinate.  

This time, one of my ways of procrastination was to actually research about procrastination. Procrastination is the action of delaying or postponing work that could have been done at an earlier time. It primarily stems from the behavioral phenomenon called “time inconsistency” which states that there are two versions of ourselves, the present self, and the future self. Our present self values the time that we have and wants to spend that time treating ourselves, while our future self wants to be the one who has accomplished all the goals and tasks at hand and is on top of things. Most of the time, the wants of our present self win despite having good intentions of doing the work, we procrastinate and waste the time on our hands. This newfound knowledge led to more research about anti-procrastination and productivity techniques.  There were a lot of techniques that were learned from researching, some of these include the Kanban Method, the Eisenhower Matrix, and the Eat the Frog method. All of these productivity techniques focused on time management and dividing up the tasks at hand. However, out of the many ones that were researched, there was one method that stood out the most compared to others, which was the Pomodoro technique.

The Pomodoro Technique stands out as the simplest and most effective method for managing time and improving focus. It was developed by Francesco Circle in the late 1980s, and it is a method that is used by most people, especially college students, today. The Pomodoro Technique revolves around the concept of breaking work into short and focused intervals with small breaks in between. First, you choose a task to work on. Set a time for 25 minutes and exclusively focus on the chosen task, after those 25 minutes, take a 5-minute break, and repeat the process over and over again. After completing four cycles of work and a break, take a longer break for around 15 to 30 minutes and then repeat the cycle again. 

There are different factors that make the Pomodoro Technique so effective, but the two that are most utilized are the force focus and the Zeigarnik Effect.  The first factor is called the force focus technique. This technique involves breaking the task at hand into small, short manageable intervals and encourages a deep focus on the task. The brain can only work for a limited amount of time before needing a mental break. By utilizing the Pomodoro Technique, it provides short structural intervals and forces the brain to work for those 25 minutes without taking a break.  

Another factor as to why the Pomodoro Technique is effective is because it utilizes the Zeigarnik Effect, which is a psychological phenomenon that suggests that people remember uncompleted or interrupted tasks better than completed ones. So, when a task is interrupted with a short or long break, it creates a mental loop in the mind, leading to a sense of urgency to complete the task at hand. So, right after your break ends, it ensures you go back to the task at hand. The Zegarnik Effect increases motivation and focus in a person, showcasing its effectiveness. This also fosters productivity and effective use of time management, leading to the Pomodoro Technique’s success

As the semester comes to a close and the pressure mounts, the Pomodoro Technique serves as a mental stimulant and emerges as a powerful tool in combating procrastination and changing productivity. The structured approach that the Pomorodo technique utilizes, capitalizes the brain’s natural ability to focus for limited periods and enforces concentration on the task at hand. By embracing this method, students can navigate their challenges and achieve their goals without being defeated due to procrastination. 

References:

Amit, A. J., Shankararam, S. G., Pradeep, P., Perumalraja, R., & Kamalesh, S. (2021, May). Framework for preventing procrastination and increasing productivity. In 2021 3rd International Conference on Signal Processing and Communication (ICPSC) (pp. 228-232). IEEE. 

Clear, J. (2019). Procrastination: A Scientific Guide on How to Stop Procrastinating. jamesclear. com/procrastination>. Acesso em, 12. 

Kachigan, M. (2022, January 4). Pomodoro Technique & productivity – method that yields big results. Official Teamly Blog – Official Teamly Blog – Your Project Management Resource. https://www.teamly.com/blog/pomodoro-technique-to-maximize-productivity/ 

Pomodoro technique: A simple timer improves productivity: Clockwise. RSS. (n.d.). https://www.getclockwise.com/blog/pomodoro-technique 

Seifert, C. M., & Patalano, A. L. (1991). Memory for incomplete tasks: A re-examination of the Zeigarnik effect.

When we listen to music, we evoke a wide range of emotions within ourselves. Whether it be the lyrics of a song or the beats of the music, we connect with the music and feel all types of emotions. Whether they are emotions of sadness or feelings of joy, music is more to us than just an auditory sensation. But imagine if music is more than that, instead of just emotions, you find yourself stuck in a world full of vivid colors, like a kaleidoscope changing constantly due to each note, beat, and chord within a song. People who experience music through colors like that have the neurological phenomenon called chromesthesia, which allows them to constantly see vibrant colors in their minds whenever they hear a tune. 

Synesthesia is a neurological phenomenon where one sensory pathway triggers the experiences of another, which offers a unique interconnectedness between the senses. Amongst its various forms, one of the most common forms of synesthesia is chromesthesia, where different sounds evoke a different vivid color in someone’s mind. For individuals with chromesthesia, listening to music isn’t just an auditory experience but a very visual one. Each note, chord, and melody create different colors, shapes, and patterns in their mind, and every time the music changes, these colors, shapes, and patterns change as well. These synthetic experiences are deeply personal, with each person associating specific sounds with distinct colors, textures, and intensities that they have no control over. 

Chromesthesia is estimated to affect approximately 1–2% of the population, but it is very common to people with synthetic experience. However, due to the individualized nature of chromesthesia, it is very hard to accurately determine its prevalence. Research indicates that both genetic and environmental factors influence chromesthesia. Family studies have shown a higher prevalence among relatives of synesthetes, while environmental factors, such as early exposure to music or language, also play a significant role. There are many neuroimaging studies that reveal there is an increased connectivity between auditory and visual brain regions in individuals with chromesthesia. This connectedness is based on a theory called the cross-activation theory of synesthesia. This theory suggests that synesthetic experiences arise from increased communication between different brain regions, suggesting a remarkable cross-modal integration of sensory information. According to this theory, people with synthesis have a sensory input in one modality (e.g., hearing a sound) that automatically triggers another modality (e.g., seeing colors). This cross-activation is thought to occur due to atypical neural connections between sensory areas of the brain, causing the stimulation of one sensory pathway to spill over into another. This theory suggests that synesthesia arises from the brain’s inherent flexibility and ability to create novel connections between sensory pathways, leading to the blending or merging of sensory experiences.

In conclusion, chromesthesia, a form of synesthesia where sounds evoke vivid colors, shapes, and patterns, offers a unique glimpse into the interconnectedness of our senses. For individuals with chromesthesia, music isn’t just heard but also seen, creating a rich multisensory experience. While it affects an estimated 1-2% of the population, its prevalence is difficult to accurately determine due to its highly individualized nature. Both genetic predispositions and environmental factors, such as early exposure to music or language, contribute to the development of chromesthesia. Neuroimaging studies suggest that chromesthesia arises from increased connectivity between auditory and visual brain regions, supporting the cross-activation theory of synesthesia. This theory proposes that synesthetic experiences emerge from atypical neural connections, allowing sensory input in one modality to trigger experiences in another. Chromesthesia showcases the remarkable flexibility and complexity of the human brain in integrating sensory information, offering a fascinating window into the wonders of perception and cognition.

References:

Chromesthesia Music visualizer (PC). realovirtual.com. (n.d.). https://www.realovirtual.com/rovdb/juegos/11997/chromesthesia-music-visualizer

Dring, D. (2017, November 9). Chromesthesia: Hearing and seeing sound in colour: Beardedgmusic. Bearded Gentlemen Music. https://beardedgentlemenmusic.com/2017/11/09/chromesthesia-seeing-sound-in-colour/

Hubbard, Edward M., et al. “Individual differences among grapheme-color synesthetes: brain-behavior correlations.” Neuron 45.6 (2005): 975-985.

Makhlin, J. (2014). Chromesthesia as phenomenon: emotional colors.

Simner, J., & Hubbard, E. M. (2006). Variants of synesthesia interact in cognitive tasks: Evidence for implicit associations and late connectivity in cross-talk theories. Neuroscience, 143(3), 805-814.

Why do patterns of sound have so much power over us, stirring our emotions, evoking memories, and leaving a permanent impact on us? Music has been an integral part of human culture for centuries, from the bards of ancient civilization to modern pop artists, serving as a universal language. Human beings have an inherent capacity for music appreciation and enjoyment which is ingrained in our cultural and biological makeup. While speech primarily serves as a means of communication, music serves a different purpose, allowing us to express and experience emotions, moods, and affective states that enhance our quality of life.

When we hear music, our brains start processing the sound right away. The auditory perception system is like our brain’s “music analyzer.” It breaks down the music into different components, like pitch, rhythm, and melody. This happens in several areas of the brain, including the brainstem, thalamus, and auditory cortex. For example, when you listen to a piece of music, your brainstem picks up the vibrations in the air created by the sound. These vibrations are then sent to the auditory cortex, where they’re decoded into recognizable sounds and patterns. This process allows us to distinguish between different notes, chords, and rhythms in the music we hear.Moreover, our brains can detect subtle changes in pitch and timing, which are essential for understanding melodies and rhythms. This ability to process and analyze sound is crucial for our enjoyment of music because it helps us make sense of the patterns and structures within the music.

But it’s not just about understanding the music as our brains also try to predict what’s coming next. This predictive ability is crucial for making sense of the music and anticipating how it will unfold. Think of it like predicting the next plot twist in a movie based on the clues you’ve picked up along the way. Our brains are constantly making predictions about the music we’re listening to based on patterns and expectations formed from our past experiences. This predictive process helps us anticipate how the music will progress and allows us to stay engaged with the music as it unfolds. For example, if you’re listening to a familiar song, your brain might anticipate the next verse or chorus based on the patterns established earlier in the song. This predictive ability is what keeps us engaged with the music and makes it feel satisfying when our predictions are correct.

Now, why does music make us feel so good? When we listen to music that we enjoy, our brains release chemicals like dopamine, which are associated with pleasure and reward. This happens in a part of the brain called the reward system, which is responsible for reinforcing behaviors that are beneficial to our survival and well-being. When our brains detect that the music we’re listening to is pleasurable, they release dopamine, which makes us feel good. This is why listening to music can be such a joyful experience – it literally makes our brains happy! Moreover, studies have shown that our brains respond more strongly to music that exceeds our expectations or surprises us in some way. Our brains are essentially saying, “Wow, that was even better than I thought – I love it!” This heightened response in the reward system is what makes certain pieces of music feel especially satisfying and enjoyable.

So, when we listen to music, our brains go through a complex process of perception, prediction, and reward. The auditory perception system helps us understand the music, the prediction system helps us anticipate how it will unfold, and the reward system makes us feel good when we hear something we enjoy.

Understanding these processes can help us appreciate why music has such a powerful effect on our emotions and well-being. It’s not just about the sounds we hear – it’s about how our brains interpret and respond to those sounds, creating feelings of happiness and enjoyment. So, the next time you find yourself lost in your favorite song, remember that it’s not just music – it’s a symphony of brain activity bringing you joy and pleasure.

Sources:

Schrock, K. (2009). Why Music Moves Us. Scientific American Mind, 20(4), 32–37. https://doi.org/10.1038/scientificamericanmind0709-32

Zatorre R. J. (2018). Why Do We Love Music? Cerebrum:the Dana forum on brain science, 2018, cer-16-18.

In the medieval era, medicinal practices were influenced by a blend of herbalism, superstition, and early medical theories. This led to an array of home remedies, some effective, some strange, some which should never be practiced today, that people of that time used to cure themselves of their ailments. Here’s a list of the most common remedies of that time.

For migraines

The medieval remedy for migraines was boiling barley with herbs like betony and vervain, then wrapping them in a cloth and applying them to the head. Betony, a grassland herb, was commonly used in medieval remedies for various ailments and is still utilized in modern medicine for treating severe headaches and migraines. Vervain, known for its glycoside derivatives, was also used in the remedy and is still applied today in modern treatments for migraines, depression, and anxiety.

For a sore throat

The medieval remedy for quinsy involved a rather gruesome procedure: stuffing a cat with various ingredients like hedgehog grease, bear fat, resins, fenugreek, sage, honeysuckle gum, and wax, then roasting it and using the gathered grease to apply on the patient’s body. This bizarre treatment is just one example of harmful medieval practices that should not be practiced today. 

For a cough

The medieval remedy for treating a cough was consuming a mixture of horehound juice and diapenidion, a confection made from barley water, sugar, and egg whites drawn out into threads. Horehound, known for its effectiveness in treating coughs, was combined with diapenidion, which provided a sweet and pleasant taste. Some parts of this remedy are still used today as sugar, a key ingredient in diapenidion, is used in over-the-counter cough remedies for its soothing effects on the chest. 

For an upset stomach

To relieve colic caused by trapped wind, medieval medicine prescribed a remedy made from carminatives, cumin and anise, steeped in white wine for three days and nights. After drying for nine days on an ash board, the mixture was powdered and ingested in pottage or as a drink. Alternatively, dill and fennel could be used for the same purpose, similar to modern gripe water formulas. This concoction usually took around 2 weeks to prepare, so patients would likely purchase this remedy from apothecaries.

For gout

To treat gout, medieval people would prepare an owl by plucking it, cleaning it, and salting it before placing it in a pot covered with a stone and baking it in an oven until burnt. Once burnt, the owl was pounded with boar’s grease to create a mixture used for anointing the affected area. However, this treatment was likely entirely ineffective and only led to an unfortunate situation for the owl. 

A stye/bump on the eye

The remedy for a stye, or a small painful bump, on the eye was done through first pounding either onion or leek and garlic, then mixing them with equal parts of wine and bull’s gall. After letting the mixture stand for nine nights in a brass bowl, it was strained and applied to the eye with a feather at night. This concoction, though initially unappealing in appearance and odor, exhibited potent antibiotic properties due to the antimicrobial components of onion, garlic, and bull’s gall. Additionally, the reaction between the wine and brass bowl produced bactericidal copper salts. Recent research has validated the efficacy of this remedy, prompting further investigation for potential use against antibiotic-resistant infections like MRSA. 

For burns and scalds

Medieval medicine recommended using the slime of a live snail to treat burns and scalds, a simple yet effective remedy that reduces blistering and alleviates pain. Recent scientific studies have confirmed that snail slime contains a range of beneficial properties, including antioxidants, antiseptics, anti-inflammatories, and skin-repairing compounds like collagen and elastin. Modern skincare products, known as “Snail Gel,” now utilize these properties for treating minor injuries such as cuts, burns, and scalds.

For sciatica nerve pain

Medieval remedies for sciatica or pain caused by the sciatic nerve often included a mixture of ingredients such as the gall of a red ox, water-pepper, cumin, and suet. These ingredients were boiled together to create an ointment-like gruel, which was then applied to the affected area. Additionally, the patient was instructed to apply heat to the hip bone and use hot cloths on the area. Despite the questionable effectiveness of the ingredients, the combination of bed rest and heat treatments may have provided some relief for sciatica symptoms.

Sources

Anastasi, L. (2023, January 13). Medieval History – Herbal Medicine in the Middle Ages. Medieval History. https://historymedieval.com/herbal-medicine-in-the-middle-ages/

Freeman, J. (2022, August 17). Do not try this at home: Medieval medicine under the spotlight in major new project. University of Cambridge. https://www.cam.ac.uk/stories/curious-medieval-medicine

Mason, E. (2015, April 20). 9 weird medieval medicines. History Extra; History Extra. https://www.historyextra.com/period/medieval/9-weird-medieval-medicines/

The night sky has captured people’s imagination for cultures across the world throughout human history. From the ancient Mesopotamians and Egyptians to the Mayans and Greeks, ancient people used the stars to shape their beliefs, practices, and societies. 

One such civilization was Mesopotamia, where the night sky held great mysteries for the ancient inhabitants of Sumer, Babylon, and Assyria. Ancient Mesopotamians studied celestial bodies like the Moon and planets, blending astronomy, astrology, and religion into “astral science.” They developed a lunar calendar around 3000 BCE, with names for celestial entities like the Moongod dating back to 2500 BCE. By 1800–1000 BCE, they named the five visible planets. These celestial bodies were seen as divine manifestations and interpreted as signs from gods. Moreover, Babylonian scholars recorded celestial events to predict future phenomena, introduced zodiac and mathematical astronomy, and developed horoscopy and astrology by the 5th century BCE. 

Ancient Egyptian astronomy primarily served practical purposes, particularly in time measurement for calendars and daily cycles. The earliest calendar was lunar, synchronized with the star Sirius to align with the natural year. This evolved into a 365-day calendar, divided into three seasons of four 30-day months, with five additional days. The observation of decans rising at nightfall, combined with a 30-day month divided into three 10-day ‘weeks,’ led to the establishment of the 24-hour day. However, the Egyptians also found ways to connect the cosmos to the events of Earth. The Egyptians tracked the movements of stars, particularly Sirius, whose rising was at the same time as the annual flooding of the Nile. This celestial event, known as the “heliacal rising of Sirius,” was believed to lead to agricultural abundance,  and they also built structures like the Great Pyramids of Giza to align with celestial phenomena.

In Mesoamerica, the ancient Mayans had a similar sophisticated astronomical tradition. Mayan astronomers developed detailed and precise calendars that tracked the movements of celestial bodies through centuries of astronomical observations. Specifically, the Maya Long Count calendar, which spans over 5,000 years, reflects their understanding of astronomical cycles and the way in which they were integrated into Mayan society. Celestial events such as solar eclipses and the equinoxes led to rituals, as they would mark important agricultural cycles and religious ceremonies. Moreover, structures such as Chichen Itza were built for ceremonies in order to align with the movements of the sun and stars.

In ancient Greece, philosophers and scholars used the night sky as a means to pose fundamental questions about the nature of the universe and humanity’s place within it. Building upon earlier Babylonian and Egyptian astronomical traditions, Greek scholars such as Thales of Miletus, Pythagoras, and Aristotle sought to understand the fundamental nature of the cosmos. One of the fundamental contributions of Greek astronomy was the idea of a geocentric model of the universe, which stated that Earth was at the center of the universe. This idea was famously articulated by Aristotle, who argued that Earth, being the heaviest element, must occupy the central position in the universe. Additionally, Claudius Ptolemy in his work “Almagest,” developed a mathematical model of planetary motion based on a system of nested circles called epicycles which predicted the positions of the planets relative to Earth. Greek astronomers also applied their knowledge of the cosmos to build various instruments, including the astrolabe and armillary sphere, which allowed for precise measurements of celestial positions and movements. 

Ancient astronomy was some of humanity’s first attempts to decode the universe. The observations and scientific ideas across these diverse civilizations the globe shows the value that humans have placed on this field and the meaning it carries with us. Today, we can continue the legacy of ancient astronomers by continuing to be captivated by the night sky and growing our knowledge of it. 

Sources:

Chatley, H. (1939). Ancient Egyptian Astronomy. Nature, 143(3617), 336–336. https://doi.org/10.1038/143336b0

Goldstein, B. R., & Bowen, A. C. (1983). A New View of Early Greek Astronomy. Isis, 74(3), 330–340. https://doi.org/10.1086/353302

Ossendrijver, M.  (2020). The Moon and Planets in Ancient Mesopotamia. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Planetary Science. Retrieved 20 Apr. 2024, from https://oxfordre.com/planetaryscience/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190647926.001.0001/acrefore-9780190647926-e-198.

Tedlock, B. (1999). Maya Astronomy: What We Know and How We Know it. Arch, 14(1), 39.

The 17th and 18th centuries were a time of profound transformation in Europe in regards to thought, reason, skepticism, and empirical observation. This was nowhere more pronounced than during the Age of Enlightenment, its intellectual and philosophical movements leading to modern democracy, with the ideas ushered in during this time forever changing the scope of Western science. 

The thinkers of the Enlightenment were inspired to question beyond the limits of scientific reasoning at that time and change human understanding. During the early 17th century, European intellectual reasoning consisted of religious dogma and Aristotelian philosophy, with it being unthinkable to challenge the medieval church’s idea of a divine and static universe that centered around Earth. Therefore, the ensuing Scientific Revolution during this time revolutionized the way that Europeans thought about the world and set a new standard for deductive reasoning and scientific observation. 

Science at this time was conducted predominantly by scientific societies and academies rather than universities, and while some societies had links to universities, most societies operated on their own. These societies grew to have control over their publications, the election of new members, and the administration of the organization, with there being over 70 different scientific societies by 1789. Additionally, science during this time became more popular among the increasingly literate populace and the public was introduced to various scientific ideas. 

One thinker who was thought to establish the foundations for the movement was Francis Bacon, who is known for establishing empiricism and the scientific method. His book, Novum Organum, discussed a new approach to gathering knowledge from systematic experimentation, inductive reasoning, and empirical observation. He also wrote about the idea of testing hypotheses through experimentation as a way to pursue scientific inquiry. He was the first advocate for the idea of separating religion from science, and his impact on the science world remains today as the scientific method is still seen as the standard way to approach discoveries. 

The most pivotal scientific thinker of that age whose legacy remains today is Sir Isaac Newton. His Principia Mathematica described classical mechanics and presented the laws of motion and universal gravitation through mathematical observation and analysis. His law of universal gravitation and the laws of objects in motion changed the way that people practiced science and indicated the need for empirical observation and evidence behind scientific ideas rather than religion. Through this, Newton was able to demonstrate how the same physical laws govern both terrestrial and celestial environments, challenging the ideas of the universe at that time. These insights would also eventually lead to advancements in the fields of physics, astronomy, and engineering.

Another scientist during this time was Carl Linnaeus, a botanist and physician. His book, Systema Naturae, established the binomial nomenclature for species classification where each species is assigned a two part Latin name for its genus and species. Linnaeus ordered animals and plants into defined groups, such as domains and phyla, and used the scientific ideas of observation and rational analysis to study various evolutionary relationships and biodiversity. His work shaped people’s understanding of nature and created a framework for how botany, zoology, and ecology is studied. 

Overall, the Age of Enlightenment was an integral part of scientific and intellectual history and changed the way that Europe viewed reason, individualism, and progress. While the Enlightenment might not have explored all modern thought, the scholars, scientists, and thinkers of this time sought to break free from the limited knowledge of their world and seek new truth and ideas. Today, we can reflect on the science from the Enlightenment to continue to make bold scientific discoveries and create our impact on the world. 

Sources:

Bristow, W. (2010, August 20). Enlightenment (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). Stanford.edu; Stanford University. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/enlightenment/

Duignan, B. (2024, March 28). Enlightenment. Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Enlightenment-European-history 

Zucker, S., & Harris, B. (2016, January 7). The Age of Enlightenment, an introduction. Smarthistory. https://smarthistory.org/a-beginners-guide-to-the-age-of-enlightenment/